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��ࡱ�>�� u �r�ԋbjbj�n�n2��a��aƃ ��""��8��,��pl��spupupupupupup$`r�u<�p��p��4�p��sp��sp��x��_p�p0�p�ru�:ru��/ru��m��p�p��p��ru��"qs: world development volume 147, issue 11, november 2021 1. title: does competitive scarcity affect the speed of resource extraction? a common-pool resource lab-in-the-field experiment on land use in northern namibia authors: nils christian hoenow, michael kirk. abstract: the aim of this study is to analyze how scarcity of resources affects the rate at which users decide to extract or appropriate resources. we investigate this by conducting an economic lab-in-the-field experiment in northern namibia. small-scale farmers (n = 252) participate in a common-pool resource game framed as conversion of a fictional forest into agriculturally used land, which resembles decisions they regularly make in real life. we compare environments where the forest resource is abundant against environments where the forest resource is scarce and extraction therefore competitive. it turns out that extraction rates are lower in scarce than in abundant environments. results also reveal that having experienced resource scarcity in the real world affects experimental decisions. 2. title: land property rights and household take-up of development programs: evidence from land certification program in ethiopia authors: birhanu addisu adamie. abstract: access to secure land plays a key role in the socio-economic development of agricultural households. since 1998, large-scale land certification programs aimed at strengthening the land property rights of agricultural households in ethiopia have been implemented across regions to varying degrees. using a three-period, large-scale nationally representative panel dataset from ethiopia, this paper investigates the importance of access to secure land property right in the form of land certification for household take-up of agricultural development interventions that aim to improve household agricultural productivity and sustainable land use at a community level. we studied the take-up of agricultural extension packages and participation in community level sustainable land and water management programs as outcome variables. to account for potential endogeneity in the allocation of certificates and other confounding factors, we applied different panel data methods including instrumental variable approach. we find that access to secure property rights have a positive and significant effect on household take-up agricultural development interventions: agricultural extension packages and sustainable land and water management interventions. additionally, we find that land certificates significantly predict household adoption of chemical fertilizers. 3. title: fish or steel? new evidence on the environment-economy trade-off in developing vietnam authors: quynh nguyen, edmund malesky. abstract: trade and investment have contributed to the improvement of living standards in developing countries, but have also put severe pressure on natural environments. how do citizens in low-income countries manage this trade-off between economic growth and environmental protection? using a discrete choice experiment conducted as part of three large, face-to-face nationally representative surveys of vetnamese citizens (n=>12,500 respondents per wave), we find that prospective economic benefits increase public support for investment projects, whereas potential environmental harm resulting from investment decreases the public appetite for them. when economic and environmental factors are considered jointly, our results point to the existence of an environmental risk threshold. environmental costs beyond that threshold lead citizens to reject investment projects, even when they generate considerable economic benefits. our results challenge the theory that individuals in low-income countries prioritize development over environmental protection, and have implications for political leaders in designing their countries� future investment policies. 4. title: institutional bricolage and the (re)shaping of communal land tenure arrangements: two contrasting cases in upland and lowland northeastern laos authors: diana suhardiman, natalia scurrah. abstract: this article examines the factors shaping communal land tenure and livelihood practices in two villages in houaphan province, northeastern laos. it employs the concept of institutional bricolage to show how local actors combine communal tenure, state intervention, donor programs and local power relations to (re)shape formal rules and day-to-day land tenure and livelihood practices. in particular, it highlights how state territorial strategies in lowland and upland rural spaces have differently shaped state interventions in communal land use and access, producing hybrid forms of communal land management rules and practices. the two cases highlight different processes by which communal tenure is eroded or adapted in the process of state incorporation, raising questions about competing authorities over land and the interests and objectives of different actors in land administration. the village cases illustrate how local communities� (in)ability to shape, adapt, and reproduce institutional rules and arrangements pertaining to access and use of communal land is closely interlinked with: 1) how farm households perceive communal land tenure in relation to their livelihood options and farming strategies; 2) how power relations among local communities and between local communities and state actors shape decision-making processes and distributional outcomes; and 3) the role of the state in sustaining and advancing its control over land and how this changes over time. 5. title: protecting girls from droughts with social safety nets authors: jagori chatterjee, joshua d. merfeld. abstract: this paper revisits the relationship between agricultural productivity shocks and the infant sex ratio in india and investigates how this relationship changes when households have access to government-provided employment opportunities outside of agriculture. when a household�s preference for sons coincides with adverse agricultural productivity shocks, previous research shows that households tend to disproportionately reduce investments (prenatal and postnatal) in their female children. this behavior leads to a relatively more balanced sex ratio in good rainfall years and a more skewed sex ratio (in favor of boys) in low rainfall years. in a deviation from past work, we find evidence of this effect primarily through prenatal channels in modern india. more importantly, we show that a workfare program that decouples both wages and consumption from rainfall attenuates the relationship between rainfall and the infant sex ratio. using a back-of-the-envelope calculation, we find that the program could have saved at least 0.7 million girls � relative to boys � if the government had implemented it from 2001 to 2005. suggestive evidence also indicates that the program may have attenuated the positive effect of birth year productivity shocks on girls� longer-term height-for-age. 6. title: wealthy, healthy and green: are we there yet? authors: son nghiem, bach tran, clifford afoakwah, joshua byrnes, paul scuffham. abstract: the history of humankind witnessed a continual improvement of living standards. the introduction of agriculture stabled our food supplies. the industrial revolution eradicated hunger and reduced poverty across the globe. during the development process, human also reached the capacity to create substantial impacts on the environment, which has created adverse effects on our health. we believe that technological progress will enable us to achieve a balance between health, income and the environment. in this study, we test the club convergence hypothesis using data on economic development, health and environment of 36 oecd countries during the 1990�2015 period. using the club convergence test, we found significant evidence of overall convergence only in the emission of two air pollutants: carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. however, groups of countries have converged in all three aspects. also, our panel data analysis showed that improving human capital is crucial for the synergy between good health, clean environment and positive economic growth. 7. title: water access in global south cities: the challenges of intermittency and affordability authors: victoria a. beard, diana mitlin. abstract: the article analyzes water access in cities in the global south. we examine two challenges to water access from the perspective of households: intermittent services and affordability. the article analyzes primary and secondary data from 15 cities and one corresponding informal or low-income settlement in each city in sub-saharan africa, south asia, and latin america. in 12 out of 15 cities analyzed, households connected to the municipal piped system received water intermittently, which compromises quality. in the 15 informal settlements studied, seven receive water less than 17 hours a week. households that lack access to publicly provided water obtain water from alternative sources which can cost up to 52 times as much. in informal and low-income settlements in three cities, cochabamba, kampala, and mzuzu, basic supplies of water appear unaffordable to households with average income. our analysis points to the need for cities and water utilities to work together to extend the public piped networks, address intermittent services, and ensure adequate supplies of water are affordable. looking forward it will be increasingly difficult for cities to keep pace with the growing demand for water, hence the urgency to change our collective ethos about water access and improve modalities of provision now. 8. title: revisiting china�s supermarket revolution: complementarity and co-evolution between traditional and modern food outlets authors: yuan yuan, zhenzhong si, taiyang zhong, xianjin huang, jonathan crush. abstract: like many emerging economies in the global south, china is experiencing major transformations of its national and local food system characterized by the rise of supermarkets. there has been an ongoing debate on the relationship between supermarkets and wet markets in developing countries. drawing on data from a city-wide supermarket mapping and surveys conducted in nanjing in 2019, this paper revisits china�s �supermarket revolution� process and challenges the prediction of supermarket domination. it reveals that nanjing�s food retailing system has been shaped by the complementarity and co-evolution of the wet market and the supermarket sectors with considerable policy support. the paper, therefore, contributes to the broader debates on the existing �supermarket revolution� theory by providing baseline evidence and new perspectives for understanding the food environment in urban china. policymakers and researchers need to recognize the possibility of the co-evolution of supermarkets and wet markets in other cities of the global south. investing in urban food system planning could enhance the adaptability of the food system to improve food security. 9. title: improving the measurement of rural women's employment: global momentum and survey priorities authors: gayatri b. koolwal. abstract: this paper sets out a survey research agenda on the collection of data on rural women�s employment, to inform gender-sensitive design and targeting of rural employment policies and programs. stylized facts are presented from nationally representative surveys across countries, including labor force surveys and multi-topic household surveys with a focus on employment. the first set of recommendations in the paper cover topics that can currently be incorporated in national surveys, based on recent international guidance and survey data initiatives. this includes improving the counting of rural women�s work and employment in agriculture and contributing work, comparing self-reporting as opposed to proxy response; adding questions related to labor underutilization; and modifying and adding questions on constraints to seeking better economic opportunities. the second set of recommendations cover survey methods that still need to be explored through research and testing. this includes how to better elicit unpaid work burdens in surveys and the links with time in employment; how community survey data can complement individual data on complex topics like wages and access to childcare; and developing a survey research agenda around measuring work amid rural economic transitions, including individual-level data on work-related migration across surveys, skills development and access to technology. contextual factors associated with work and employment also need to be considered in survey design. 10. title: property rights and misallocation: evidence from land certification in china authors: xuwen gao, xinjie shi, shile fang. abstract: employing 2015 and 2017 cfd data, this paper studies how the new round of a land certification program that aims to provide secure land titles for farmers has affected factor reallocation and aggregate output in china. the main findings are that land certification results in well-defined and secure property rights and leads to land and labor reallocation to more efficient farms with positive aggregate effects. our paper also provides direct evidence of the reallocation mechanism by showing that the reform increases renting-out by low-productivity farmers and renting-in by more productive farmers. moreover, the reform changes the likelihood of households remaining in agriculture: low-productivity households are more likely to have migrants than high-productivity households. 11. title: the multidimensional indicator of extractives-based development (mindex): a new approach to measuring resource wealth and dependence authors: amir lebdioui. abstract: despite the vast amount of academic work estimating the impact of natural resources on development, very little attention has been devoted to the implications of using one type of natural resource measurement over another. this study fills this important gap in two ways. firstly, it puts forward the biases and statistical misconceptions associated with different measurements of resource wealth, which have often led to the wrong classification of resource-poor countries as resource-rich and vice versa. as a result of the limitations of existing measurements, the discourse around extractives-based development has tended to lump various countries together, considering them all to be �resource-rich�, which is misleading. instead, this paper shows that resource wealth and dependence are multifaceted. secondly, in contrast to the conventional measurements that have relied on different indicators of resource wealth in isolation from one another, this study sheds light on the need for a multidimensional approach to measuring resource endowment. i propose a new indicator, the mindex, which weights six different variables of both resource abundance and dependence across several dimensions (extractives reserves, production, exports, and government revenues) that relate to the different steps of resource exploitation chain to harness natural resources for development. because of its methodology, the mindex can also serve as a diagnostic tool that contributes to identifying some of the extractives-related policy challenges that a given country may face at a given time (such as illegal commodity smuggling, poor appropriation/taxation of commodity revenues, limited production capacity of existing deposits, vulnerability to commodity price fluctuations, and acute commodity dependence). it therefore also responds to the need for a new measure of extractives-based development to indicate whether a country is moving in the right or wrong direction over time and has clear relevance for informing resource mobilization dynamics and development strategies. 12. title: epidemics, pandemics, and social conflict: lessons from the past and possible scenarios for covid-19 authors: remi jedwab, amjad m. khan, jason russ, esha d. zaveri. abstract: since covid-19 broke out, there has been renewed interest in understanding the economic and social dynamics of historical and more recent epidemics and pandemics, from the plagues of antiquity to modern-day outbreaks like ebola. these events can have significant impacts on the interplay between poverty and social cohesion, i.e. how different groups in society interact and cooperate to survive and prosper. to that effect, this paper provides a theory-driven overview of how social responses to past epidemics and pandemics were determined by the epidemiological and non-epidemiological characteristics of these outbreaks, with a particular focus on the conditions giving rise to scapegoating and persecution of minority groups, including migrants. we discuss existing theories as well as historical and quantitative studies, and highlight the cases where epidemics and pandemics may lead to milder or more severe forms of scapegoating. finally, we conclude with a summary of priorities for future research on epidemics, pandemics and social conflict and discuss the possible effects and policy implications of covid-19. 13. title: conflict exposure and food consumption pathways during and after conflict: evidence from northern uganda authors: annet adong, lukas kornher, oliver kiptoo kirui, joachim von braun. abstract: we examine the consequences of conflict exposure on food consumption and consumption pathways three and six years after the cessation of hostilities of the lord resistance army insurgency in northern uganda. we use the correlated random effects model and fractional multinomial response model with nationally representative panel data collected during and after the cessation of hostilities. the uniqueness of this study is in using three related conflict exposure measures: household within 5 km of conflict locality, 10 km of conflict locality, and self-reported (a proxy for direct exposure) to capture both effects from violence and insecurity from the insurgency. we find between 13.5 and 30 percent reduction in consumption expenditure two to three years after the cessation of hostilities compared to during the armed conflict. furthermore, the reduction in food consumption expenditure is still evident six years after the cessation of hostilities compared to during the conflict, albeit of lower magnitude than the period immediately after the cessation of hostilities. in the immediate period after the end of hostilities, households continue to rely on consumption from market purchases and transfers and less on their own produced food. in the medium period, directly affected families significantly rely on transfers (in-kind and cash) for sustenance. regarding households� recovery, we find no significant differences in returns to land between homes exposed to violence and insecurity and those not exposed while returns to skilled labor increase. social safety nets, opportunities for non-farm employment, and efforts to improve agriculture production are some of the policy options to assist in the recovery of households following a conflict. 14. title: do financial crises increase income inequality? authors: cristina bodea, christian houle, hyunwoo kim. abstract: this paper investigates the impact of economic crises on income inequality. important evidence has emerged that in the aftermath of crises politics becomes polarized and economists have linked this to greater differences in income due to crises. however, the evidence on whether crises are linked to divergent incomes is weak and plagued by i) the possibility of a reverse effect going from great disparity in incomes to major economic crises; ii) the persistent nature of income inequality; and iii) important measurement error in both the dependent and independent variables. we use the longest time stretch of available data on crises and types of crises (reinhart and rogoff, 2011) and income inequality (solt, 2009), as well as decade averaged data, general method of moments and error-correction models to more credibly estimate the complex relationship between crises and inequality. we find strong evidence that currency, banking, inflation and debt crises increase inequality, particularly in the long run. 15. title: political liberalization and human development: dynamic effects of political regime change on infant mortality across three centuries (1800-2015) authors: susumu annaka, masaaki higashijima. abstract: it has been long debated among comparativists whether democratic states advance human development. by regressing infant mortality rates on a cumulative score of democracy, recent studies have suggested that a long tradition of democracy is of greater importance than the present degree of democracy to explain human development. this approach, however, faces several issues and also fails to pinpoint the effect of a democratic reform at a certain point in time on future human welfare. we argue that political liberalization encourages policymakers to adopt poverty-alleviating policies, but such a policy change is more likely to bear substantive fruit over the relatively long run. using newly collected panel data on infant mortality rates from 1800 to 2015 from 172 countries, we test our theoretical expectations. applying error correction models to this extensive time-series cross-sectional data, we find that political liberalization is more likely to increase equal access to public services immediately but that infant mortality rates are reduced in the long run. these results suggest that democratic reforms do have a positive effect on human welfare, but the effect might appear with a passage of time as well as shrinks over time. our research implies that policymakers may need to make tireless investments in the advancement of political liberalization to continue improving human well-being in the developing world. 16. title: relationship between water and sanitation and maternal health: evidence from indonesia authors: lisa cameron, claire chase, diana contreras suarez. abstract: poor household water supply and sanitation can affect maternal and newborn health outcomes through several pathways, including the quality of drinking water consumed by pregnant woman and exposure to harmful fecal pathogens in the environment due to poor quality sanitation. using data on 14,098 pregnancies across four rounds of the indonesian family life survey (ifls), we investigate the relationship between water and sanitation and outcomes along the course of a pregnancy - health and complications during pregnancy, probability of a miscarriage, complications during child birth, probability of live birth, and neonatal outcomes including birth weight and newborn survival rates. after controlling for confounding factors, we find that access to at least basic household sanitation is strongly associated with substantially decreased overall risk during pregnancy and birth. whether or not a household has access to at least basic sanitation is strongly significantly associated with a lower probability of miscarriage and is a strong predictor of high fever during labor (an indicator of infection). we find no systematic association between household access to basic water and maternal and newborn outcomes. we also find no evidence of herd protection resulting from high levels of sanitation within the community. 17. title: normalizing necessity? support networks and racial inequality in namibia authors: annalena oppel. abstract: community or interpersonal support is a critical source to sustain livelihoods in the global south. at the same time, these practices can exhibit unequal dynamics such as disincentives, hierarchies, or adverse inclusion of individuals. however, an understanding of such is primarily tied to the conceptual space of poverty or small communities. less is known about how social support systems might respond to structural inequalities within a society. this paper explores how support practices might be shaped by or respond to structurally inherited inequalities in the namibian context. more precisely, i estimate the probability of supporting others that are notably worse off by comparing support practices of black and white namibians across various age groups, gender, and socioeconomic standing. by drawing on primary network data, i assess racial inequality as a social dynamic within the space of practising solidarity towards others and further evaluate whether providing worse off others corresponds to consequences of former discriminatory practices under the apartheid regime. my results suggest that racial inequality shapes support practices and meaning. for black namibians, this can entail that support among family members is a necessary act to redress economic imbalances stemming from former discriminatory policies. for white namibians, support to worse off others seems to be an act of choice that primarily involves socially distanced contacts. i propose that racial inequality has normalized a sense of support as a necessity for black but not white namibians. this can lead to sharing one�s merits with members of the extended family for black namibians, rather than accumulating, saving, or re-investing its outcomes. more broadly, by recognizing differences in group practices, i evidence that exploring support practices across structural inequalities can enhance insights on the social replication of inter- and intragroup-based inequalities. 18. title: leaders� distributional & efficiency effects in collective responses to policy: lab-in-field experiments with small-scale gold miners in colombia authors: luz a. rodriguez, mar�a alejandra velez, alexander pfaff. abstract: globally, small-scale gold mining (ssgm) is an important economic option for many rural poor. it involves local uses of shared resources, like common-pool contexts for which self-governance has avoided �tragedies of the commons�. yet even ideal local governance of ssgm is not societally efficient given non-local damages that suggest external interventions for desired shifts. because transactions costs are high for rewarding reductions in damages on remote mining frontiers, states could gain if rewards based on low-cost, group compliance measures could successfully induce cooperation in response to policy. however, as group-level rewards invite free-riding, such success requires local collective action. since that guarantees neither efficient coordination nor equitable distributions of net benefits from compliance, we consider the impacts of emergent leaders on local responses to external policy. we employ framed lab experiments with 200 small-scale gold miners in colombia's pacific to explore leaders� impacts on equity and efficiency in collective responses to external incentives. allowing communication before individual choice, which raises efficiency but not always equity, we can identify emergent leaders of groups� communications. leaders raise compliance and affect how its costs are distributed, suggesting access to leadership roles matters. 19. title: social protection and multidimensional poverty: lessons from ethiopia, india and peru authors: liyousew g. borga, conchita d�ambrosio. abstract: we investigate the impact of three large-scale social-protection schemes in ethiopia, india, and peru on multidimensional poverty. using data from the young lives cohort study, we show the trend, changes and evolution of multidimensional poverty for individuals in program participant households. we follow a number of strategies to produce estimates that deal with non-random program placement. our findings show that both the incidence and intensity of multidimensional poverty declined in all three countries over the period 2006�2016, more so for program participants than non-participants. we find positive short-term impact on asset formation, livestock holding, and some living standard indicators. in all three countries these positive impacts are sustained even in the medium and longer-term. 20. title: investment impacts of gendered land rights in customary tenure systems: substantive and methodological insights from malawi authors: klaus deininger, fang xia, talip kilic, heather moylan. abstract: although most of the world�s agricultural land is cultivated under customary tenure regimes that tend to change over time in response to exogenous factors, the impact of customary rights on productivity and investment remains under-researched. using unique data from an experiment in malawi, we show that (i) parcel-level bequest and sale rights affect investment and cash crop adoption; (ii) impacts are gender-differentiated -women�s rights affect investment and men�s cash crop adoption- and vary by inheritance regime; and (iii) measurement error associated with traditional approaches to survey data collection easily obscures these effects. beyond reinforcing the need for careful empirical research, this suggests that gradual erosion of women�s customary rights may reduce land related investment and that measures other than titling (e.g. changes in family law or legal support) may enhance it. 21. title: hyper-elites and network: capturing the powerful upper tail in madagascar authors: mireille razafindrakoto, fran�ois roubaud, linda rua. abstract: in order to gain an understanding of how elites affect the development process, one of the first challenges is to investigate who are the elites and how do they access positions of power. the characteristics of the hyper-elites network and how it impacts on the distribution of power may constitute a key determining factor of the political equilibrium and the economic trajectory of a country. this article shows first the relevance of data from a first-hand statistical survey designed to be representative of the hyper-elites in madagascar. this survey managed to capture in a comprehensive manner the pathways and the social networks of �elites�. the latter are defined as those who hold or have held top positions and/or have a level of responsibility in nine different spheres of power (political [governmental, elective and partisan], economic, religious, military, civil society, international organisation and public institution). our empirical approach focused on social capital, instead of income or wealth, provides an innovative way to apprehend and to study in its entirety and nationwide how �the powerful upper tail� functions. drawing on this unique dataset of 1000 hyper-elites, we show to what extent position of power is associated to four key elite network dimensions: size, quality, diversity of contacts and strength of ties. more specifically, the quality and diversity of ties are among the most relevant determinants of access to positions of power. our analysis sheds light on the hyper-elite strategy of network building to �keep themselves to themselves� and on the importance attached to casts and other inherited positions. it explains the limited social mobility and the huge gap between the elites and the majority of the population, which are among the causes of madagascar�s recession. 22. title: achieving peaceful climate change adaptation through transformative governance authors: hanna leonardsson, annica kronsell, erik andersson, anders burman, ... joakim �jendal. abstract: which form of governance is required to bridge tensions that stem from the urgent need of climate change adaptation (cca) on the one hand, and the imperative of upholding peace and social stability in vulnerable areas on the other? this article proposes transformative governance as a framework and methodology for addressing this question. it recognizes that the increased pace of climate change requires urgent and thorough adjustments to actual or expected climate change effects through a transformation of societies to increase their capacity to build sustainability. our framework for transformative governance approach responds to this imperative and is based on three components: a theoretical framework for peaceful cca governance derived from the fields of sustainability governance, political ecology and peacebuilding, second, a �glocal� and bottom-up approach illustrated by two examples of cross-border collaboration, that demonstrate peaceful cca governance as necessarily glocal, thirdly a learning methodology that implies context-based, goal-oriented, pluralistic and interactive co-production of knowledge. these are argued to be vital conditions for implementing cca governance that is transformative and supports peaceful societies. 23. title: minimum wage compliance and household welfare: an analysis of over 1500 minimum wages in india authors: kashif mansoor, donal o'neill. abstract: in many developing countries there is a substantial difference between de jure and de facto regulation of minimum wages. we examine the consequences of this by looking at the heterogenous effects of minimum wages across compliance regimes in india. we show that minimum wages have a positive effect on wages, without a corresponding effect on employment. as a result, household consumption increases following increases in the minimum wage. however, the beneficial pass-through to wages and consumption is significantly reduced in low compliance regimes. labour market reforms can improve workers� living standards but only if accompanied by effective compliance. $%&(035679b��ʻʻ�ʘ�zf^qc5h�7�h�7�5�ojqj^jh�"�hu<�5�ojqj^jh�ud5�ojqj^jo(h�"�h�"�o(&h�"�h�"�5�cjojqj^jajo(hm8x5�cjojqj^jajh 2e5�cjojqj^jaj#h�o�h�o�5�cjojqj^jaj h��5�cjojqj^jajo(h�o�5�cjojqj^jaj#h�"�h�"�5�cjojqj^jaj h$-�5�cjojqj^jajo(#h�o�h�o�5�cjojqj^jaj678� ,��)*��<=��i]#^#��gd�psgd)w�gd$?�gdto�gd�l$gd%j,gdu<�gd�"�$a$gdt4�� * 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